 |
 |
|
|
|
Acceptability- refers to a characteristic
of good test. It entails both the "learner's willingness to participate
in the testing and their satisfaction that the test evaluates their progress"
(Lee and Van Patten 1995,
p. 135.) For example, if the instructor only uses the target
language a small percentage of class time and if students rarely have opportunities
to listen to speech samples to identify the main ideas, the learners may
not accept a listening comprehension portion on an exam.
Access- is an important concept introduced by Terrell (1986 and 1991). Access refers to the ability to express an idea by employing a particular form or phrase. It is one of two main processes needed to create speech. Access is followed by production strategies which entail the ability to put forms and structures together in acceptable ways to communicate an idea. See also binding.
Accomodation- refers to the process by which the child changes the way information is organized in his/her mind so that the new input can be easily integrated into the knowledge store. This concept was first proposed by Cognitivistpsychologist Jean Piaget. (See also Cognitive Learning Theory.)
Accuracy- is the acceptability,
quality and precision of a language sample. A description of accuracy
should include the following charateristics: fluency,
grammatical competence, and pragmatic
competence (p. 17).
Achievement Test- are evaluative instruments used to rate the learner's acquisition of specific course content. (p. 412)
Acquisition- refers to a subconscious
process by which learners make connections between language forms and meaning
through exposure to comprehensible input.
For some theorists (for example,Krashen),
acquisition is a separate and distinct process from learning (p. 50).
Some practitioners in the field see acquisition and learning as two interrelated
processes subsumed in the complex task of developing language proficiency.
Acquisition Orders- refer to
the natural sequence of internalizing grammatical structures that
according to indications from second language research, occur over
time. For example, learners of English acquire verb forms in this
order: -ing forms first, regular past tense (-ed) second, irregular
past tense third and third person present tense (-s) last. Lee and
Van Patten (1995) discuss implications for classroom instruction.
See LessonNotes.
ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines-
These guidelines define and measure language ability in speaking, listening,
reading, and writing. Assessments of a learner's global language
proficiency are obtained through evaluations of language performance samples.
Proficiency levels include: novice, intermediate, advanced, and superior
(pp. 13-15).
Advance Organizer- is a term coined
by Cognitive psychologist David Ausubel.
It entails the use of introductory materials with a high level of
generality that introduce new material and facilitate learning by providing
an "anchoring idea" to which the new idea can be attached (p. 58).
Cognitive theorists believe that it is essential to relate new knowledge
to existing information learned. Teachers can facilitate learning
by organizing information presented so that new concepts are easily relatable
to concepts already learned.
Examples of devices that may be used include: pictures, titles
of stories, reviews of previously learned concepts, short video segments,
a paradigm, a grammar rule, etc. (part of David Ausubel's Cognitive
Learning Theory).
Affective Activities- are learning tasks that ask for an opinion, a personal response or relate to the learner's experience. This is a crucial component of Communicative Language Teaching.
Affective Filter- refers to emotional
factors that impact learning, such as, motivation, self-confidence, self-image
and anxiety. Acquisition is high when motivation, self-confidence
and self-image are strong and anxiety remains low. This concept
is part of Stephen Krashen's Monitor
Model of Second Language Acquisition (p. 51).
Analytical Practice- involves learning activities that focus on language forms. Several educators support the contention that learners need to analyze language forms in isolation in order to understand how they work and to use them correctly in communication. They caution that analytical practice needs to be contextualized and that it should simulate communicative exchanges (pp. 126-127).
See a poorly constructed analytical practice exercise (p. 127) sample.
See a sample analytical practice exercise that is contextualized and communicative (adapted from p. 128).
Analytical Scoring- refers
to a type of evaluation in which the instructor separates various key features
of
a composition and evaluates these components individually before assigning
an overall grade. Key features may include: vocabulary, grammar,
organization and content. These key features are evaluated according
to set criteria. Sample criteria can be found on pp. 344-345.
See also holistic scoring.
Approach- is generally synonymous with method or methodology. An approach consists of a task hierarchy regarding when and how presentational and instructional activities are employed. Approaches can be classified according to several factors including: the role of memorization, the role of visual aids, the importance of controlling or sequencing structure and vocabulary, the importance of error correction, the role of modeling, explicit grammar presentation, etc. (pp. 78-79). Some theorists distinguish between approach, the theoretical set of principles regarding presenting and teaching languages, and method, as the procedural plan for presenting and teaching the language (p. 78). Most practicioners use the words interchangeably.
Assimilation- means that a child
modifies input from the environment so that
s/he can easily retain it. This concept was first proposed by Jean
Piaget.
Assimilation Phase- is the last phase of reading instruction proposed by Lee and Van Patten. This phase engages learners in tasks that facilitate learning from the content of the passage read. Some sample tasks include: writing a summary, creating a poster about the content, identifying themes in the passage, filling in a chart or table, establishing cause/effect relationships, problem/solutions or advantage/disadvantages. See also preparation, guided interaction phase and personalizing phase.
Atlas Complex- is a term coined by Lee and
Van Patten (1995, p. 6) to illustrate the role that teachers
assume and that students generally expect them to play.
Like Atlas, the titan from Greek mythology who supported the heavens on
his shoulders, classroom teachers are viewed as authoritative knowledge
transmitters. Teachers lecture, lead and tutor. Students play
the role of passive audience. They are note-takers, followers and
tutees. Lee and Van Patten advocate new roles for both teachers and students.
See LessonNotes.
Audio-Lingual Method- is an approach
to second language instruction based on Behaviorist learning theory.
This approach stresses memorization and pattern drills to attain mastery
of the language.
Priority is given to speaking skills and building habits through overlearning
(pp. 94-99).
Ausubel, David- a Cognitive psychologists
whose ideas on learning theory are easily applicable to second language
learning ( pp. 54, 57-58 and 131). Key concepts for facilitating
second language learning involve the use of advance
organizers and promoting meaningful
learning.
Authentic Materials- are materials
created in the target language for a target language audience.
Examples include: menus, signs, short stories, political cartoons,
a TV commercial, a song, etc.
Some educators include materials that reflect a naturalness of form
and an appropriateness of cultural and situational context that
would be found in the language as used by native speakers. Based
on this definition, one would include unmodified authentic discourse
and simulated authentic discourse
(p. 175). Simulated authentic discourse is especially helpful to
novice level learners. Teachers should also include unmodified authentic
discourse early in instruction. Learners should not feel that they
have to understand the whole message. Instead, teachers should encourage
learners to focus on tasks they can do. The use of unmodified authentic
discourse can be highly motivating provided the learner task is appropriate
for the proficiency level of the students. (pp. 82-83)
Automatic Processing- is a term from
Cognitive learning theory (McLaughlin, 1978) that refers to the learner's
ability to perform a skill routinely without thinking. This ability
develops over time by making connections to input through practice (p.
55).
B
Background Knowledge- is a term used
by Cognitive theorists to refer to existing learned information.
According to cognitive learning theory,
meaningfulness and familiarity of second language material is essential
as learners begin to develop second language skills. For example,
most cultures employ degrees of formality when greeting and meeting other
people. By discussing formal and informal ways of greeting people
in English and the circumstances when they are employed, learners can better
relate to formal and informal address in the target language. Another
example relates to developing reading skills. When students begin
to read short newspaper articles in the target language, it is important
to look for key words in the title and to refer to any pictures or illustrations
that may give an idea about the gist of the article. In addition,
using the key questions, who, what, when, where and why, facilitates the
reading process.
(pp. 130-37)
Behaviorism- is a theory of learning that emphasizes directly observable behavior and the belief that human and animal learning are similar if not identical. According to this theory, all behavior occurs in response to stimuli. As a result, all learning is based on habit formation due to cause and effect relationships in the environment. Language is learned because some patterns are reinforced (accepted or rewarded) and others are not. For Behaviorists, the human mind is a tabula rasa or blank slate. Exposure to language and successful communicative experiences (the speakers words cause the desired outcome) imprint language in the learner's mind. (pp. 44-46).
Binding- is a concept coined by Terrell ( 1986 and 1991). Binding refers to the ability to "make direct form-meaning connections" (Lee and Van Patten 1995, p. 49). This ability is prerequisite to the ability to create sentences.
Bottom-up Models- is a term coined
by Barnett (in Omaggio, p. 195) and it refers to a type of model
of reading comprehension. This type of model, views reading as a
process that involves the learner in attempting to derive meaning from
the elements of the written text (letters, words, phrases and sentences).
Bottom-up models envision reading as a linear process in which the reader
accumulates information from the text only. Most second language
learners approach reading exclusively as a "bottom-up" task. It is
a difficult, tedious task because learners lack knowledge about the language
and about the culture. Research studies indicate that second language
reading comprehension is promoted when learners are provided experiences
that allow them not only to "crack the code," but also to visualize the
content of the text and to relate to it personally (pp. 195-197).
See interactive model of reading.
C
"Carefree Style"- includes
activities in which learners are practicing new forms. These activities
follow in a progression from controlled to precommunicative.
They also evolve from simple to more
complex formats. The purpose of the tasks is to guide learners
toward automatic, accurate usage of the
forms. (p. 232) See Planning
Instructional Activities in LessonNotes.
Chomsky, Norm- is a linguist whose theories on language are grounded in the rationalist view. He published a critique of Skinner's behavorist theories in 1959 and proposed a view of language based on the principles and beliefs of Cognitive psychology. Chomsky believed that people are born with "a language acquisition device" (LAD) that endows them with certain basic language acquiring features. These include: the ability to distinguish speech from other sounds, the ability to organize language into a system of structures, the knowledge of what is acceptable and what is unacceptable within the language system and the ability to create a simple system that enables them to use the language. Chomsky also believed that a universal grammar exists that contains "fixed abstract principles." One example is question formation. All languages utilize questions. All languages adhere to general ways for forming questions; a particular language follows one specific way of forming questions. Chomsky's linguistic theory did not include second language learning. Both Cognitive Learning Theories and Krashen's Monitor Model have tried to explain second language learning. These theories represent two different interpretations based on Chomsky's work (pp. 48-50).
Classical Conditioning- refers to the process of habit formation that is central to the experiments conducted by Pavlov. In one of Pavlov's experiments, he taught dogs to salivate when a bell rang. He accomplished this by repeatedly presenting meat powder to dogs when a bell rang. The association strengthened over time and the dogs began to salivate whenever a bell rang even if the meat powder was not present. In this experiment the unconditioned stimulus was the meat powder. The conditioned stimulus (that produced the learned behavior) was the bell (p. 46).
Cloze Activity- is a paragraph or dialogue
in which grammatical and vocabulary elements from a unit are missing
and must be supplied by the student. Often these types of activities
are accompanied by a complete translation or a list of possible forms listed
in alphabetical or random order. See example on
p. 441.
Cognitive Learning Theory- views
learning as a process influenced by both external and internal factors
(interactionist view). The emphasis, however, resides on internal
factors. For Cognitivist psychologists (Ausubel,
McLaughlin and Ellis), mental structure or organization of knowledge highly
influences learning. These theorists grounded their research on
the work of Jean Piaget. Piaget believed
that people actively "organize experience" (in Omaggio, p. 55). New
information must be integrated into the mental structure to be learned.
Human learning entails strategies for thinking, understanding, remembering
and producing language. Language proficiency depends on understanding,
integrating, organizing, practicing, and automizing subskills needed to
communicate. Restructuring ( reorganizing existing mental structure
to accomodate new knowledge) and automatization (the routine performance
of a skill or subskill without thinking about it) are central to developing
language proficiency (pp. 54-59).
Coherence- refers to a logical flow of ideas within a text or speech sample maintained through organization and transitional phrases.
Communication- is the act of exchanging thoughts, messages or information by speech, signs or writing. Communication generally entails a purpose. There are two basic kinds of purposes: informational-cognitive and psycho-social. Informational-cognitive purposes include obtaining information in order to perform another task. Psycho-social purposes involve employing language to bond socially or psychologically with a person or with a group in order to engage in common social behaviors of a group or community.
Communicative Activities- include practice in which learners use the language to exchange previously unknown information with one another. Example
Communicative practice also engages learners in the subskills necessary
for completing a communicative task. Click here for an example
of this activity.
See also Instructional
Planning Activities in LessonNotes.
Communicative Competence- isthe degree to which a person's use of the language and understanding about the language is appropriate to the context in which it takes place (p. 3). It depends on the negotiation of meaning between two or more persons sharing some knowledge of the language and applies to both written and spoken language in specific contexts (Savignon, Communicative Competence Theory and Classroom Practice 1997, p.5). Four major components include: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and strategic competence (Canale and Swain in Omaggio, p. 6)
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)- refers to a progression of approaches to second language teaching that focus on providing opportunities for student "to use the language to interpret and express real-life messages" (Lee and Van Patten 1995, p. 8). These approaches include Cognitive Approaches and new adaptations of the Direct Approach, like the Natural Approach. Lee and Van Patten posit that traditional classroom learning must be altered substantially to achieve truly communicative teaching. See LessonNotes.
Comparability- is a characteristic of tests that relates primarily to schools or other institutions that use them. If several classes or large groups of learners are using a test instrument for a particular reason (required proficiency for taking a course or receiving certification, for example), the schools or institutions using the exam expect learners' test scores to be similar after they have been taught the same content by the same approach. See also economy.
Competence- refers to implicit (demonstrates knowledge through applying knowledge to language use) or explicit knowledge (able to articulate the "rule") of the system of a language which can be evaluated through performance ( p. 3); it is what one knows about a language (Savignon, Communicative Competence Theory and Classroom Practice, p. 15)
Componential-Weighing Score- refers to a method of evaluating student performance on a test instrument. Since language use involves complex processes and multiple types of knowledge, some theorists believe that tests should be scored according to several criteria. These criteria should be assigned points according to how much the criteria contributes to overall language use. See also holistic scoring.
Composing- encompasses all of the
processes employed when creating a written text. These include:
thinking about the topic, taking notes, working on multiple drafts,
revising and writing. (p. 290)
Valdés
(1984; 1989) has proposed a model of writing instruction that includes
three stages: prewriting,
composing and revision. For Valdés,
the composing process should be guided by an outline or series of
questions that organize the students' writing so that they consider
focus on mechanical and organization
elements. (p. 333)
Composing-Oriented Activity- is a type of writing activity proposed by Lee and Van Patten. A composing-oriented activity engages the learner in the prerequisite prewriting and writing phases suggested by the research findings of Flower and Hayes (1981). Lee and Van Patten offer the following sample prewriting activities.
These authors provide these sample
composing or writing activities.
Comprehensible Input- is
a key concept of Stephen Krashen's Monitor
Model of second language acquisition. According to Krashen,
learners acquire language through exposure to language samples that contain
mostly familiar forms and a few novel expressions. In early instruction,
language samples should resemble "motherese," a special form of language
that caregivers use with children in natural language learning settings
as they develop language. Some researchers have coined the term "teacherese"
to describe similar kinds of discourse employed in the classroom setting.
"Teacherese" or "teacher
talk" is characterized by a slower rate, clear articulation, longer
pauses, paraphrases, gestures and use of objects or pictures. Lee
and Van Patten give the following example
of how vocabulary related to the family can be introduced using comprehensible
input.
Comprehensible Output Hypothesis-
posits that learners should engage in tasks that require the use of
familiar structures and some novel structures. Some theorists
suggest that concerns for developing
accuracy can be met by providing multiple activities that guide the
learner toward correct forms. (p. 317
and the discussion regarding accuracy
on pp. 83-84)
Comprehension- is one
of four primary categories of understanding needed to develop cultural
understanding identified by Vicki Galloway (1984). Cultural comprehension
requires analytical skills, the ability to formulate hypotheses and tolerance
of ambiguity. Comprehension is achieved by taking into consideration
the connotations, conventions,
and conditioning of a culture.
Comprehension Stage- is the fourth stage of reading instruction proposed by Phillips (1984). During this stage, several checks are made to see if the learner has achieved the purpose of their reading. These comprehension checks should include the different phases of the reading process (making predictions, skimming to get the gist, scanning to get specific information and intensive reading to obtain meaning of details through context and determining relationships between thoughts in the text). Sample activities can be found on pp. 201-215. See also preparation stage, decoding/intensive stage, skimming/scanning stage and transferable/integration stage.
Conditioning- is one of four primary categories of understanding needed to develop cultural understanding identified by Vicki Galloway (1984). Conditioning entails the culturally programmed responses and actions employed by members of a culture attain basic human needs. For example, hispanics rarely conduct business at the first meeting. It is important to establish a relationship first. This behavior contrast sharply with U. S. business practices. (p. 370) See also connotation, comprehension, conventions.
Connectionism- is the theory that bases its explanations of language acquisition on what is known about the functions of the human brain (McClelland, Gasser, in Omaggio pp. 60-61). Researchers have conducted experiments that allow them to use ultrascan technology to view the areas of the brain that are activated while learners perform various language tasks. Connectionist models of language acquisition view learning as connections that are made among different parts of the brain in response to regularities of patterns of language to which the learner is exposed. Input (language samples to which the learner is exposed), then, allows the learner to adjust what s/he produces to match the model. Language is not rule-based, but pattern-based. Some Connectionists posit that their work remains outside of the rationalist-empiricist debate about the nature of language learning. They contend that their work can be viewed and accepted from either viewpoint. Some of the tenets of communicative language teaching seem to relate to connectionist theory (pp. 59-63).
Connotation- is one of four primary categories of understanding needed to develop cultural understanding identified by Vicki Galloway (1984). Connotations refer to the cultural associations related to words and phrases. The concepts "individual" and "compromise" have positive connotations in U. S. culture. These words have negative connotations for hispanics. See also conditioning, comprehension and conventions.
Content- entails the depth and breadth
of the discussion of a topic or theme. It also includes the precision
and sophistication with which the topic is handled (pp. 16-17).
exas.: at the novice level, learners can name several modes
of transportation
at the
intermediate level, learners can describe and compare modes of transportation
at the
advanced level, a learner can tell in detail about a train trip and discuss
future travel
plans
at the
superior level, a learner can discuss mass transit and the issues surrounding
the
expansion of Metrolink
See also context, function
and proficiency.
Content-Based Instruction- refers
to teaching models that closely relate specific contents to second language
teaching. This type of instruction is used primarily in elementary
school programs and in English as a second language programs. A content-based
lesson in an elementary school program might focus on animals of the rain
forest or Mayan counting systems. Content-based lessons for ESL programs
might concentrate on job related words and phrases. Foreign language
workshops for health professionals might also be based on specific content:
taking a patient's health history, advising patients about lead poisoning,
talking about nutrition. An important issue related to content-based
instruction relates to accuracy. Researchers
caution that language objectives must be included in content-based lessons
if the development of proficiency is desired. (pp. 154-55)
Context- refers to the circumstance
or setting in which a person uses the language (p. 16)
exas.: ordering a meal in a restaurant, making a purchase in
a clothing store, obtaining information about air transportation to a specified
destination, arguing a point of view in a class discussion on culture.
See also content, function
and proficiency.
Contextualized Practice- refers to learning activities that engage learners in using the language within the framework of a particular topic or situation. Click here for a sample practice exercise that is contextualized and communicative (adapted from p. 128)
Controlled Processing- is a term refered to in Cognitive learning theory. It relates to structures of the language that have not yet been learned. When learners are learning new structures, they must focus on the structure and think about the rules without distraction or interference. These practice activities should, however, be meaningful. In order to be meaningful, they should be contextualized and relatable to actual communicative exchanges. Cognitive theorists contend that learners need some initial analytical practice before they move to more open-ended, task-based practice with the language. (p. 55).
Convention- is one of four primary categories of understanding needed to develop cultural understanding identified by Vicki Galloway (1984) . Conventions refer to the typical behaviors of the people of a culture in everyday situations. According to Galloway, two types of conventions exist: context determined (relate to extralinguistic behaviors, like space and eye contact, employed in a given situation) and function determined (established utterances used to carry out functions in a given context, like form of address and appropriate greetings). (pp. 368-69) See also connotation, comprehension and conditioning.
Convergent Test Item- refer to test questions that require one right answer. They may be discrete-point items or they may require the students to integrate different knowledge or skill to arrive at the appropriate answer. ( p. 420) A sample item might look like this:
Read the Bed-and-Breakfast
Guidebook and match the problems that these tourist had with
the paragraph of the text
that they should have read.
1. _______ "We
really didn't have much luck getting a reservation for a farm vacation
last
summer. we were in France for the first two weeks of August and we
could
hardly find a place to stay!"
2. _______
"I don't know why the farmer at our last chambre d'hotel wouldn't
let
little Jenny ride on the tractor. I thought that's what farmstays
were
all about!"
3. _______
"I was sure we could get a room at that last farm without calling
ahead. It seemed so out of the way and this is the off season..."
(Omaggio-Hadley 1993, p. 210-211)
Cultural Theme- is a key concept of Nostrand's Emergent Model for teaching culture. According to Nostrand, a cultural theme is "an emotionally chargerd concern, which motivates or strongly influences the culture bearer's conduct in a wide variety of situations" (Nostrand, 1967, p. 277). Nostrand identified twelve cultural themes that constitute the French value system: individualism, intellectuality, the art of living, realism, common sense, friendship, love, family, justice, liberty, patriotism and traditionalism. (p. 364)
Culture- is a complex value system constructed by a community. The system is composed of cultural themes, intense concerns, that impact the community's perceptions, attitudes, behaviors and beliefs. This value framework determines what is "logical" or "common knowledge." Culture encompasses all areas of human life from art, literature and major institutions (big-C culture) to folktales, customs and festivals (little-c culture). Culture also includes the connotations that words and phrases have and the meanings associated with them. (pp. 361-374)
Cummulative Evaluation- See short-term evaluation.
Curriculum- is a document that includes a description of a course or sequence of courses and the goals and objectives for the course(s) with suggested content and activities. (p. 482)
D
Decoding/Intensive Stage- is the third stage of Phillips' (1984) model of reading instruction (p. 220). This stage is particularly important when students are still "learning to read." Decoding entails obtaining the meaning of words or phrases through context, and determining relationships between sentences, between phrases and between paragraphs in the text. It is a strategy that learners use when a text contains unfamiliar phrases, complex structures or difficult concepts that make the text difficult to understand. Sample decoding activities can be found on pp. 216-221. See also preparation, comprehension stage, skimming/scanning stage and transferable/integration stage.
Development Stages- is another
concept from second language acquisition research that Lee and Van
Patten discuss in relationship to second language instruction. According
to research findings, structures are acquired over time. Van Patten
found that classroom learners of Spanish pass through five stages when
learning how to use the verbs ser and estar (to be).
First, students pair nouns and adjectives without a verb (*Juan alto
[John tall]). Next, they use the verb ser exclusively (María
es simpática. [María is nice] *Ella es estudiar.--the second
sentence should be Ella está estudiando. [She is studying.]).
Then, students acquire the use of estar with the progressive form
of the verb (Ella está estudiando.) After this phase,
they acquire the use of estar to denote location (Están
en Chicago. [They are in Chicago.]). Finally, student acquire
the use of estar with adjectives of condition (Estoy muy contento.
[I am very happy.]). According to Lee and Van Patten, this shows
that language acquisition is not merely the result of "good habits" (1995,
p. 25).
Direct Method- is an approach to second language teaching that began in the 19th century and was advocated by educators such as Berlitz, the founder of the commercial language schools. The method was based on the way children learn their first language through direct association of words and phrases to actions, people and objects in the environment. The Direct Method features exclusive use of the target language and emphasis on correct pronunciation. Learners comprehend language through listening, they develop speaking skills through producing language accompanied by appropriate actions and form their own rules about grammar through induction. See the sample lesson plan on pp. 93-94.
Discourse Competence- is the third component of Canale's and Swain's language acquisition model. It is the ability to express ideas clearly and in a logical manner. Discourse competence involves using language forms like pronouns, conjunctions or transitional phrases to relate ideas beyond a single utterance so that they make sense and develop a particular idea. It also includes understanding how different language samples (conversations, radio broadcasts, literary texts, political speeches, and newspaper articles) are organized. Without these skills, it is difficult to initiate, sustain and complete communication. (These abilities are sometimes refered to as textual competence.) See p. 6 and 131.
Discourse Transformation- is
a test item designed to evaluate the student's discourse
competence and grammatical competence
at the same time. In these types of items, students are required
to modify a test passage to show that they know the correct forms and how
to use specific elements. For example, students might be asked to
change all nouns repeated with the appropriate pronoun. See the example
on
p. 444.
Discrete-Point Test Item- refer to individual test questions that focuses on a particular piece of knowledge or skill. A sample test item might require students to match target language words with English equivalents. Another discrete-point test item might elicit the correct conjugated form of a verb in a sentence with a specified subject. (pp. 414-15) See also open-ended test item.
Divergent Test Item- See open-ended
test item.
E
Eclecticism- is the belief that the best approach to language teaching resides in "borrowing" elements from different methods and theories that suit specific language learning settings. Many teachers adopted this stance after the failure of "the One True Way," the Audiolingual Method proved unsuccessful. The problem inherent in an eclectic method centers in the tendency to combine contradicting elements and the lack of organizing principles to guide instruction.
Economy- relates to testing. It refers to the ability to gain the most information about the learner's knowledge and use of the the target language in the shortest amount of time possible and with least exertion of energy from both the student and the teacher. An economic test instrument gives an instructor an idea of the students overall knowledge or ability through sampling.
Elaboration- refers to the ability
to add to an idea or set of ideas. This ability is important for
the attainment of intermediate level proficiency skills where learners
begin to create with the language.
Simple activities can be found on pp. 262-263 and 309-10.
Emergent Model- is a model for teaching culture developed by Howard L. Nostrand. According to Nostrand's model, cultural themes can be identified that serve as indicators of the culture, or value system of a community. (p. 364-65)
Empiricist- is a theorist that believes that the learner's experience is mainly responsible for language learning. Empiricists focus on observable phenomena. Therefore, innate capacities are not included in their explanations of language learning. Behaviorist learning theory (see behaviorism) and the Audiolingual Method are based on empirical research. See pp. 94-99.
Environmental Mode- is an approach
to writing (Hillock, 1986). This approach is sometimes called the
"structured process" method. It involves the use of small group
activities that engage learners in a series of tasks structured by the
instructor to guide the composing process and improve writing. For
examples see
Omaggio-Hadley, pp. 308-313.
Errors- are unacceptable forms. However, errors are a strategy for testing out new forms in order to learn more language. Instructors should create conditions so that learners can be exposed to comprehensible input and activities that will engage them in experimenting with output.
Expressive Writing- entails writing
for practical purposes and creative writing. Practical purposes
include note-taking for a class, jotting down information, giving information,
all kinds of correspondence
(letters, e-mail, memos). Creative writing encompasses all forms
of writing for self-expression (poetry,
short story, skit, anecdote, essay). (p. 292)
Extensive Reading- is a type of
reading task that builds learners' speed and skill at ascertaining the
main ideas of readings. Students should be given opportunities to
read several texts for pleasure. Students should be asked to demonstrate
a general understanding and to react to the material personally.
See discussion of Munby in Omaggio-Hadley, pp. 197-98.
F
Feedback- involves giving students information
so that they can tell if their understanding or expressions are accurate.
Feedback can be given in a number of ways. Instructors often point
out learners errors and provide the correct form or idea. Sometimes,
teachers encourage peer correction. Instructors can also employ indirect
correction. This can be achieved by repeating what the learner has
said with questioning entonation or a puzzled look. A teacher can
also rephrase the learner's sentence and ask the student to confirm his/her
meaning. These approaches provide focus on the expression and involve
the student in determining the correct form. Another approach may
entail noting errors and discussing them at the end of class or in a designated
review lesson. Feedback strategies should be determined with affective
factors in mind. Constant direct correction may discourage students
from participating in class activities. Lack of feedback may leave
learners unsure of themselves and may lead to permanent patterned errors
(fossilization).
Flexibility- is the ability to create with the language to express a variety of thoughts related to different categories. For example, retelling a story from the point of view of a different character. (p. 261)
Flexibility Measures- are
types of activities used during the writing process. They include
activities such
as transformation exercises, sentence-building practice, expansions,
embellishments and idea frames. (pp.
303-307)
Fluency- refers to the ability to create a large number of ideas in a set amount of time. For example, students generate as many questions as they can to use later in an interview. (p. 261) Fluency also refers to the ability to produce language with correctness, ease and speed. See also proficiency.
Forms- refer to "manifestations, realizations, operations" that illustrate the functions of a culture (Galloway, 1992). Examples include: open-air markets, sense of craftmanship and bartering practices in Hispanic culture. (p. 359)
Formulaic Speech- is a phenomena
discovered in second language research studies. Formulaic speech
refers to chunks of language that learners use without understanding how
the parts work together to form sentences. For example, beginning
Spanish students may be able to tell their name using the reflexive verb
form Me llamo, but they do not use reflexive structures in other
cases where it is needed. This phenomena demonstrates the importance
of comprehensible input.
Fossilization- refers to the permanent retention of unacceptable language forms in the second language. For example, second language speakers with survival Spanish skills only may create sentences without regard to noun-adjective agreement. These speakers may see no reason to improve their speech if people generally understand them and they are able to meet their communicative needs.
Functions- include real world tasks
that the speaker can do in the language. Some examples include:
naming objects, greeting, describing a person or place, asking for information,
telling a story or narrating an event, persuading, discussing a hypothetical
situation. (pp. 15, 263-64) Functions can also refer to aspects
of culture (Galloway, 1992). Cultural functions include meanings,
purposes and needs. For example: need for shelter, ways to
buy and sell goods, "compromise" (a positive concept in the United States;
a negative concept in hispanic cultures). See also forms.
(p. 359)
G
Global Test Item- requires the student to use knowledge and skills to complete a task. For example, a student might be required to listen to a short video segment and provide a summary of the content of the message. (p. 414, 422, 453) See also discrete test item.
Grammatical Competence- is the ability to control the formal structure of a language. This includes knowledge of vocabulary, rules of pronunciation, spelling, word formation and sentence structure. (p. 6)
Grammar Drills- See mechanical drills.
Guided Interaction Phase- is the second
phase of reading instruction proposed by Lee and Van Patten. Guided
interaction combines two kinds of tasks: management strategies and
comprehension checks. Management strategies enable learners to break
a passage into reasonable chunks. Comprehension checks allow the
learner to monitor their understanding of
the text as they read. Lee and Van Patten offer an example
of a management activity.
A sample comprehension check might ask students to label statements
related to what they have read as either true or false. See also
preparation, assimilation
phase and personalizing phase.
H
Holistic Scoring- entails a type
of evaluation that judges the overall proficiency level based on a language
sample. For this type of evaluation one or more evaluators rate
a language sample according to their
overall impression based on established criteria. These criteria
may include: clarity of topic, appropriate
supporting details, grammatical acceptability, appropriateness for
intended audience, coherence and
stylistics. (p. 341-343)
See also componential-weighing score.
Hybrid Test- features a blend of convergent
and divergent test items to evaluate a
student's knowedge and abilities after a unit of instruction. Some
theorists believe that a hybrid test provides more accurate assessments
due to variability during testing conditions.
(p. 418)
Humanistic Methods- posit that
affective factors are important in the learning process. Educators
should reduce anxiety in learning environments and promote motivation.
(p. 86, 111-14)
I
Immersion- refers to the use of
the second language for all communication and instruction in the educational
setting. It also refers to residence and participation in a second
language community instead of availing oneself of traditional classroom
instruction only.
Information-Gap Activity- includes pair and small group practice where the participants exchange information previously unknown by their partners or fellow group members. For example, in a paired activity, one student may have the movie schedules for the evening and the partner may have the bus schedule. The students would role-play a telephone conversation in which two young people who must rely on public transit decide to see a movie. In order to make their plans, both students must supply information that the other does not know.
Input- refers to language samples to which learners have exposure. See also Comprehensible Input.
Input Activities- include opportunities for learners to obtain access to comprehensible input to recognize and associate meaning to new vocabulary.
Integrative Test Item- See global test item.
Intensive Reading- is a term coined
by Munby (1979) in his model of reading instruction. It refers to
the kind of reading that entails understanding details about the meaning
of the text (implications, tone, figurative language, relationships between
passages, and applications to the reader's experience). (p. 197)
Some samples of intensive reading activities include: reading a short
passage and learning to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words through context
and completing schematic diagrams of a reading.
See pp. 216-221.
Interactional View of Meaning- is a theoretical view of aural comprehension. According to this theory, listeners take in the speech samples they hear, keep the sample in short-term memory, analyze and reconstruct the sample in a way that it can easily be stored in long-term memory. In this process, listeners also attend to intentions of the speaker based on knowledge of the situation, the participants and the purposes of the communicative act. ( p. 169.) An interactionist view of meaning construction in reading posits that it is a cyclical process involving interpretation utilizing both textual features as well as the reader's knowledge of the world and experiences. Interactionist views of reading are discussed on p. 195.
Interactive Model of Reading- is a theoretical model that explains what the process of reading entails. This model is grounded in schema theory. According to this model, reading involves accessing a variety of units of knowledge. These units of knowledge are referred to as schemata and they include features of written script (loops and their direction, dots and crosses), letter, letter cluster, lexical, syntactic and semantic. The reader actively employs this knowledge at the same time that s/he works to comprehend the text. Lee and Van Patten give this explanation:
For example, semantic knowledge
can be used to decide which letters comprise a word
at the same time that letters
in words may trigger semantic knowledge to be used.
In a passage on medical
care, you would expect certain words such as doctor and
nurse to appear.
When you arrive at these words in the passage, your brain does
not necessarily need to
analyze each letter and letter cluster to determine their meanings.
In a certain sense, your
brain is "ready" for these words and might need only
the d-o of doctor
and the n-u-r of nurse to access their meaning.
(Making Communicative Language Teaching Happen 1995, 190)
Interactive Model of Writing- is
a cognitive-process model that describes the thought processes involved
in prewriting, composing,
and revision. These processes occur
in tandem and influence one another. Key ingredients include:
the writing task and the environment, the writer's long-term memory and
writing processes. See also composing-oriented
activities.
Interference- refers to the influence of features of the learner's first language (pronunciation, word order, vocabulary or structures) on their second language performance. For example, a French speaker may say in English "the car of my father." Sometimes interference can actually be attributed to acquisition orders.
Interlanguage- is the second language competence of a language learner that approximates, but is not equal to the knowledge of adult native speakers of the language. The ACTFL levels of proficiency describe different stages of interlanguage. Interlanguage has also been called "language-learner language" or "transitional competency" (pp. 228-229).
Israeli National Oral Proficiency Test (INOPT)- is a testing instrument used by Israeli universities to test the English proficiency of students wishing to enroll. It employs a multiple-format approach. The instrument includes an oral interview, a role play, a reporting task and a group discussion. The oral interview is conducted like the Oral Proficiency Interview. The role play portion involves the use of a situation card (p. 259-261) and the participation of the test-taker and the tester. The reporting task requires that the test-taker read a newspaper article in Hebrew and give an oral summary of what s/he read. The group discussion portion of the exam engages four test-takers in a discussion of a controversial issue; each test-taker must express his or her opinion. (See Lee and Van Patten 1995, pp. 172-174 for a description of this test.)
J
K
Krashen, Stephen- developed a theory
of second language learning based on the rationalist
perspective, the Monitor Model (1982), that
has been widely read and discussed both by theorists and practitioners.
Some of the most important concepts of the Monitor Model include: the learning
/acquisition distinction, comprehensible
input and the affective filter.
Tracy Terrell (1977) developed The Natural
Approach, a teaching approach based on Krashen's
theory.
Kinesthetic- refers to "body
movements of all kinds including facial gestures, hand motions, leg movements,
and shifts in overall posture; body language" (Savignon, Communicative
Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice 1997, p. 275)
L
Learning- According to Scribner Bantam English Dictionary, learning involves "knowledge or skill gained by study or instruction." Language learning encompasses both knowledge and skill (see competence and performance). Most theorists believe that language learning is a highly complex process. Ausubel identified two types of learning that apply specifically to language learning: rote learning and meaningful learning. Other theorists believe that language acquisition is one process and language learning is yet another. According to this view point, learning refers to conscious knowledge of the rules of grammar of a second language and how to apply it to express oneself or to understand the ideas of others. Learning, for these theorists is only useful for beginners and students that do not have ready access to sources of comprehensible input.
Lesson Plan- is a detailed description of the content, goals, objectives, activities, resources and evaluative procedures for a class meeting. It presents the lesson activities in chronological order with estimated times. Lesson plans should have a logical flow and sequence. A variety of activities should be included that allow for active participation of the learners. See pp. 488-494 and LessonNotes.
"Lexical Analog Hypothesis"- refers to a notion commonly held by beginning language students that Higgs introduced. According to Higgs, students often believe that "the foreign language is the same as the native language, except that is uses different words" (Higgs 1979, p. 338). Teachers must guide students thinking toward a more accurate approach to their study of language and culture. Speaking or writing a second language entails much more than substituting the target language words in sentences based on English grammar. In a similar fashion, teachers need to help students see that aspects of another culture are not "illogical," "immoral," or "nonsensical." (p. 359)
Long-Term Evaluation- Long-term
evaluation involves measuring the degree to which learners have completed
the tasks related to a particular teaching
unit, quarter or school year. Evaluation procedures also allow
teachers to evaluate lesson activities and adapt lessons to meet learners'
needs and to facilitate learning. Long-term evaluation procedures include
exams, projects, presentations and portfolios.
M
Meaningful Learning- is
one of the types of learning that cognitivist psychologist David Ausubel
believed was crucial for classroom instruction. According to
Ausubel, meaningful learning entails new knowledge that clearly relates
to what one already knows and that can be easily retained and applied.
p. 57
Meaningful Practice- a concept derived from Cognitive Learning Theory that refers to activities that allow learners to develop the subskills needed in order to carry out functions in the second language needed to communicate. ( p. 239)
Mechanical Drills- refer to practice activities that focus on grammatical features only without need to attend to meaning. Click here to see Lee and Van Patten (1995, p. 91) provide this example.
See structured practice, meaningful
practice and communicative activities.
Also see LessonNotes.
Methodology- is the procedural
plan for presenting and teaching the second language. A methodology
tells when and how presentational and instructional activities are employed.
They can be classified according to several factors including: the
role of memorization, the role of visual aids, the importance of controlling
or sequencing structure and vocabulary, the importance of error correction,
the role of modeling, explicit grammar presentation, etc. (pp. 78-79).
For most practitioners, it is synonymous to approach.
Mentalist- a theorist that associates
language learning as primarily an internal process. Some mentalists
focus on first language acquisition and attempt to simulate "natural" language
learning processes in the classroom. Others base their instructional
approach on the rule system and Chomsky's
theory of language.
These two perspectives have strongly influenced second language instruction.
See cognitive approaches to second language learning, pp. 101-105.
Monitor Model of Second Language Acquisition- This theory was developed by Stephen Krashen and attempts to explain how second languages are aquired. The theory includes five central hypotheses: the acquisition-learning distinction, the natural order hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the input hypothesis (see also comprehensible input) and the affective filter hypothesis. The theory is grounded in the rationalist tradition which bases its explanations on the nature of human thought processes. According to Krashen's theory, the main purpose of classroom teaching is to provide continuous access to language samples that the learner can understand in a comfortable environment. Krashen further posits that the structures of the language are acquired in a predictable order through access to language samples instead of via instruction. Finally, Krashen hypothesizes that conscious knowledge of rules only allows learners to edit their use of the second language under limited conditions (learner must: know the rule, have plenty of time and the opportunity to focus on form only). (pp. 50-54) Tracy Terrell developed the Natural Approach, a methodology based on Krashen's theory.
Monitoring- "involves editing one's speech when one realizes 'something is wrong'" (Lee and Van Patten 1995, p. 117). Monitoring can also refer to the teacher's actions when the teacher circulates around the room to insure that students are editing appropriately and remaining on-task during group activities.
Multilayered Communicative Event- is
a concept presented by Lee and Van Patten (1995, pp. 15-16). These
scholars advocate dividing open-ended activites
into component parts that will facilitate the learner's ability to carry
out complex communicative tasks. See LessonNotes
for an example.
N
Natural Approach- is an approach to second language teaching developed by Tracy Terrell. Terrell's approach is based on Krashen's Monitor Model of Second Language Acquisition. Key characteristics of Terrell's approach include: devoting to class time to communicative activities, absence of error correction in the classroom, devoting early instruction to listening comprehension almost exclusively, emphasis on acquisition of vocabulary and concern for affective factors in learning. (pp. 108-109)
Natural Order Hypothesis- forms part
of Krashen's Monitor
Model of second language learning. According to Krashen,
people learn grammatical concepts in a natural, predictable order.
As a result, he believes that formal grammar instruction is not necessary.
(pp. 50-51)
O
Open-ended Activities- refer to practice with the language that engages the learner in creating with the language to express his/her ideas. Open-ended activities are sometimes refered to as communicative activities. This can be deceiving, however. Click on the following sample activity as described by Lee and Van Patten (1995).
Now consider instead this sample
sequence of communicative activities presented by Lee and Van Patten
(1995).
Open-Ended Test Items- are
test questions that engage students in creating language to complete a
task.
In an open-ended test item, students might write a short paragraph
describing what they did last weekend.
(p. 418) See also discrete-point test
item.
Operant Conditioning- is sometimes
called "instrumental conditioning." It is a concept from Behavioristlearning
theory. (See behaviorism.) A particular behavior
is rewarded and becomes a purposeful behavior. For example, a rat
happens to push a bar and a pellet appears. Over time, the rat discovers
that pushing a bar will provide food. The rat pushes the bar intentionally.
In the classroom, behaviorists believed that if students performed
a task correctly and were rewarded with praise, that the students would
develop the ability to perform that task when necessary. (p. 46)
Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)- is
a structured, face-to-face interview in which the instructor rates the
learner's general competence using the second
language. The interview is comprised of four phases: warm-up,
the level check, the probes and the wind-down. The warm-up phase
allows the person being interviewed "to begin thinking in the language
and sets him or her at ease" (Omaggio-Hadley 1993, p. 456). During
this time the evaluator determines a preliminary idea of the rating.
The level check serves to obtain a sample of the interviewees highest level
of proficiency. Probes include questions
or tasks that require competence above the hypothesized level to verify
the level of the interviewee. The wind-down phase brings the interviewee
to a comfortable level of performance. This serves to end the interview
on a successful note and allows the evaluator to confirm the proficiency
level. (pp. 456-458)
Originality- the ability to form
novel, creative expressions instead of merely repeating sentence that are
highly familiar or memorized. ( p. 261)
Output- utterances produced in the
second language by the learner.
Overgeneralization- refers to
errors resulting in applying a grammar rule to all similar utterances.
For example, a child that has just acquired the suffix "-ed" for the past
tense in English may say "We goed to the park yesterday." (p. 267)
P
Paradigm- is a list of all of the forms of a given grammatical structure. Textbooks tend to feature verb paradigms, definite article paradigms or possesive adjective paradigms. The following is a paradigm of German Personal Pronouns in the Accusative:
mich me
uns us
Sie
you
Sie you
dich
you
ihr you
ihn him, it
sie her, it
sie them
es
it
According to Communicative Language Teaching approaches, paradigms are "tools to organize information and present data, but they do not correspond to the way knowledge is structured in the brain" (Lee and Van Patten 1995, p. 125).
Passive Skill- is a description of
a perception about the skill of reading comprehension. Some theorists
believed that reading was primarily text-based and that learners who had
retained the vocabulary and structures featured in the text could automatically
understand the text. Most theorists and practitioners today view
reading as a receptive skill in which learners
are actively engaged in interpreting meaning from a text. (p. 163)
Performance- refers to the actual
use and understanding of language in particular instances of communication.
It is what one does with the language and it is observable. (p. 3)
Performance Error- is an error
that is made while the language user is concentrating on conveying meaning
during an actual communicative event. These kinds of errors may not
indicate the language user's ability to use the language. For example,
even native speakers make errors when they are tired or under stress.
They also use incorrect forms in rough drafts or in informal notes jotted
down quickly. Language learners will make more errors in open-ended
activities that focus on a communicative task. Teachers should
expect errors during these types of activities. Unless an error is
a constant feature of the student's interlanguage,
the teacher may decide not to interrupt the student with a correction.
Constant correction is an easy way to stiffle participation!
Personalized Practice- refers to activities that allow learners to express ideas related to their own experience. (p. 238)
Personalizing Phase- refers to the third phase of the approach to reading instruction proposed by Lee and Van Patten. In this phase, readers engage in activities in which they apply the content to themselves, to their experiences or to the world as they view it. These authors provide the following example:
Apply what you have learned about animals' sense of direction to your own experiences by describing the sense of direction of various members of your family. In the article, the author stated that reptiles memorize directions immediately. One could then write:
My father has the sense of
direction of a turtle because it is a mystery
how he always knows how
and where to go when we visit a city for
the first time. He
never needs a map.
(Lee and Van Patten 1995,
p. 210).
Phoneme- is a minimal unit of distinguishable
sound of a language. Two phonemes in English are: [p] and [b].
The only difference between the two phonemes is that [p] is voiceless (no
vibration of the vocal chords) and [b] is voiced (vocal chords vibrate).
The letter "c" has two phonemes: [s] or [k]. Consider
"center" and "canter."
Piaget, Jean- was a Cognitive psychologist whose theories on child psychology have had a lasting influence on the field of education in general. His concepts of assimilation and accomodation form the basis of cognitive theories of language development. See cognitive learning theory.
Planning- According to Krashen's
(1984) review of research literature related to the composing process,
planning is a characteristic of "good writers." Good writers,
Krashen contends, may not necessarily use
outlines, but they do their own kind of activities that allow them
to organize their ideas before they begin
writing. They also keep their plans open and flexible.
( p. 320)
Portfolio- refers to a collection
of samples of student work. These may include various writing samples,
videotapes or audiotapes of role-plays, skits or interviews, and other
projects. (p. 418)
Pragmatic Competence- refers to
the the ability to use language forms appropriately according to the participants
involved, the roles, and the social context of the communicative event.
Some scholars use the term "sociolinguistic
competence." (p. 7)
Precommunicative Practice- refers
to activities that are designed to be used before students engage in communicative
or open-ended activities. These
types of activities form part of the cognitive approach to second language
learning. See also cognitive learning
theory. Precommunicative practice focuses on a particular
form in exchanges that simulate communication. ( p. 129) Click
here for an example.
Preparation Stage- is the term
used by Phillips to describe the first step that she advocates to
develop reading skills. This step engages the student in predicting
and anticipating content in the text. This includes using titles,
subtitles, illustrations, charts, pictures and other contextual aids.
(pp. 199-200) Lee and Van Patten include a similar approach to initiating
reading instruction that they call the "preparation phase." They
stress the importance of generating ideas about the learners' knowlege
of the world. See also comprehension
stage, decoding/intensive stage, skimming/scanning
stage and transferable/integrative
stage.
Prelistening Activities- entail tasks that "are designed to help orient learners before they actually begin listening to something" (Lee and Van Patten 1995, p. 74). According to Lee and Van Patten, there are three main kinds of prelistening activities: vocabulary preparation, review of existing knowledge and anticipation of content. Vocabulary preparation enables learners to recognize and attach meaning to unfamiliar vocabulary (see input activities). Review of existing knowledge includes tasks that allow learners to reflect on what they already know.
Prewriting - refers to the first stage of an instructional model to teach writing proposed by Valdés (1984;1989). Prewriting includes activities that involve learners in thinking about their topic and generating ideas. Prewriting activities include web diagrams in which learners identify ideas related to their topic. They also employ models and discussions of purpose, organization and style. Additional kinds of activities engage learners in activities where they practice transitional or organizational devices. These activities can also involve students in generating vocabulary and practicing a function like description, for example, which they may need later during the composing process. (p. 308, 333) Valdés' instructional model is based on Flower's and Hayes' cognitive model of the reading process that centers on the task environment, the writer's long-term memory and the writing processes.
Primary Trait Scoring- is a type
of holistic evaluation used for grading student compositions. Student
compositions are rated based on certain key aspects of the writing.
For example, organization and use of
connective and transitional phrases or vocabulary and the grammatical
forms needed to fulfill a
communicative task like persuasion. See holistic
scoring. (p. 345)
Production Strategies- refer to
the approach that learners take to combining forms and words to create
sentences. See also binding and access.
Proficiency Test- are evaluative
instruments that allow instructors to rate a learner's general competence
in a second language. (p. 412) The Oral
Proficiency Interview (OPI) represents one type of proficiency
test. The OPI evaluates the learner's oral skills.
Proficient- means that a person has obtained a high level (reached the optimal or ideal level) of knowledge about a language and is able to use the language like an educated native speaker (an expert). (p. 2) There are various levels of proficiency (see ACTFL Guidelines). One can talk about particular ability ranges, for example: novice, intermediate and advanced proficiency.
Psycholinguistic Processes- refer to behaviors linked to language usage. For listening, these include perceiving, attending and assigning meaning. Perceiving entails the physiological part of listening. When one listens to a message, sound waves cause the ear drum to vibrate which in turn triggers other physical responses that eventually send a signal to the brain. Attending involves selecting a focus among all the sounds occurring to filter out unnecessary ones. Assigning meaning results from integrating linguistic information, cultural information, knowledge of the world and experience to interpret a message. These processes highlight the complexity of listening tasks.
Q
Quiz- is like a test, but it is a shorter and less comprehensive evaluative instrument. A quiz usually includes one or two formats and concentrates on one or two aspects of the language. Quizzes are often used for short-term evaluation purposes.
R
Rationalist- is a person whose
theoretical perspective views language as an innately human characteristic.
Language learning, according to this viewpoint, is a capacity determined
by genetics and it is regulated by biological mechanisms. Rationalists
focus their study on the processes and workings of the human mind.
(p. 48-49)
Receptive Skill- Both reading and listening are receptive skills. These types of skills involve active participation in the creation of meaning by means of utilizing strategies. (p. 163)
Referentially Oriented Activity- is
an activity that uses an immediate concrete source that supports the truth
value of an utterance. For example, an illustration can be used with
a series of statements to determine whether they are true or false.
This type of activity is a crucial component of Communicative
Language Teaching.
Register- refers to a special variety of language determined by its context and use.
Relevance- is one characteristic of good test instruments. It involves maintaining a correspondence between curriculum goals, course content and test items.
Rescanning- is another of the
characteristics of "good writers" (Krashen,
1984). This behavior refers to
the habit of pausing to reread what has been composed so far.
Krashen believes that rescanning helps
writers keep the the entire text in mind and to plan the next part
of the writing. (p. 320)
Restructuring- is a key concept of Cognitive Learning Theory. It sometimes is referred to as accomodation. According to Cognitive theorists, when new information is received, learners must modify the cognitive structure to accomodate the new ideas so that they are easily retainable and applied. (p. 56)
Revising- is a third characteristic
of "good writers" (Krashen, 1984). According to Krashen,
good writers make changes and corrections to their writing based on content
instead of looking specifically for
grammatical or mechanical errors. (p. 320)
Revision- is the last step
of a writing model proposed by Valdés (1984; 1989).
In this step, learners
make changes and corrections to compositions related to organization,
grammar and stylistics. Revision
activities in the classroom include checklists, error codes, exercises
for grammatical practice and
suggestions for rewriting. See also prewriting
and composing. (p. 333)
Rote Learning- is one of two
types of learning that Cognitive psychologist David Ausubel
identified as important in classroom learning. Rote learning is verbatim
and arbitrary. Rote learning is the process we use when we are given
a phone number that we memorize until we get to the phone to dial and then
we promptly forget the number. It allows us to hold information for
short amounts of time to do a particular task. For example, a student
might retain a verb conjugation long enough to take a quiz and do well.
The same student would not necessarily be able to use the tense to create
sentences. (p. 57)
S
Sampling- refers to the practice writing tests that elicit examples of students knowledge or ability regarding several selected items covered in a unit or course.
Schema/Schemata (pl.)- is a concept used by Interactionalist theorists to describe comprehension. Schemata are knowledge structures that have been learned. These are arranged in a hierarchical fashion. Expectations, goals and events are associated with these schemata and make up the learner's knowledge base. When the learner attempts to interpret a message, the schemata are employed to arrive at meaning. Schemata include both linguistic and cultural information. For example, a foreigner may not know all of the phrases associated with and the behaviors deemed acceptable at an "all- you- can- eat- buffet." Similarly, a foreign student may have difficulty with words that have different meanings in different contexts. Consider, for example: "take a bow" and "tie a bow."
Schema Theory- is a theory of reading comprehension developed in the 1960s and 70s. Rumelhart describes the theory as follows:
According to schema theories,
all knowledge is packaged into units.
These units are the schemata
[plural of schema]. Embedded in these
packages of knowledge is,
in addition to the knowledge itself,
information about how this
knowledge is to be used. A schema, then,
is a data structure for
representing the generic concepts stored in memory.
("Schemata: The Building Blocks of Cognition" 1980, p. 34)
In Omaggio-Hadley's discussion of schema theory (pp. 134-37), she emphasizes the cultural factors involved in comprehending texts written in the target language. The English word house and the French word maison share some characteristics, but they also are associated with different mental images. Elements of these different mental images often relate to important issues. For example, las rejas or wrought iron bars may seem decorative, but their security function also is associated with the opression of women in the literature of Latin America.
Lee and Van Patten explain that conditions must be favorable for readers to bring their experiences and knowledge to reading assignments. They contend that understanding how schemata assist the reader in interpreting a text will help teachers plan instruction. Schemata enable the reader to disambiguate (choose a possible interpretation based on experience), elaborate (making logical inferences), filter(using schema to relate all elements and events of the text) and compensate (using contextual clues to interpret what one does not know) as we interpret a written passage. They propose that reading instruction parallel these natural processes. See also preparation phase, guided interaction phase, assimilation phase, and personalizing phase. In addition, note Phillips five-stage plan (pp. 200-201) including preparation stage, decoding/intensive stage, comprehension stage and transferable/integration stage.
Semi-Structured Writing Assignment-
involves students in activities in which they practice forms or
functions that they will need later during the composing process.
For example, students may write a
paragraph description of a character in a short story and compare their
descriptions with others in a small
group. The group, then writes a second description of the character
incorporating ideas from all of the
students' paragraphs. For a detailed description of this activity and
others see Omaggio-Hadley, pp.
308-312.
Short-Term Evaluation- Short-term
evaluation refers to the measure of progress toward or completion of subskills
or language tasks by the end of a particular lesson. Evaluation
procedures also allow teachers to evaluate lesson activities and adapt
lessons to meet learners' needs and to facilitate learning. Some examples
of short-term evaluation include class participation, class work, quizzes
and homework.
Silent Way- is an approach to second language instruction created by Caleb Gattegno (1976). It follows the Cognitivist view of the mind as an active agent. Key concepts include: independence, autonomy and responsibility. It stresses student responsiblity for learning through using inner resources (cognitive structure, experiences, knowledge of the world and emotions) to hypothesize about input they receive. Teachers are guides who follow and support the students' agenda. (p. 114-115)
Simmulated Authentic Discourse- refers to texts or speech samples created for teaching purposes, but that are realistic and reflect the use of the language in daily conversation and writing. (p. 175)
Skimming/Scanning Stage- is the
second stage of reading instruction proposed by June K. Phillips (1984).
Skilled readers engage in both skimming and scanning as they read a text.
Second language learners need practice in both. Skimming entails
discerning the main idea of a passage. Scanning involves finding
specific information. Several examples and sample activities are
given on pp. 200-216.
Skinner, B. F.- was a Behaviorist
pschologist who believed that operant conditioning
explained human language learning. Skinner posited that the
environment and reinforcement were key factors. Learners acquire
only language patterns that are rewarded by their language community.
Extensive drill and practice are required for language learning.
Skinner's learning theory provided the theoretical basis for the Audiolingual
Method of foreign language learning. (pp. 46-47)
Sociolinguistic Competence-
is the "ability to use language appropriate to a given communicative context,
taking into account the roles of the participants, the setting, and the
purpose of the interaction"
(Savignon 1997, p. 278). It includes awareness of and use of
cultural terms, symbols and figures of speech, dialect or register.
Stage Model of Writing- describe the
writing process as a series of steps that occur one after the other as
separate links in a chain. Some theorists believe that the steps
are interrelated and occur simultaneously.
See Interactive Model of Writing.
These models generally focus on leading learners through a series of
steps that concentrate on organization, style and the development of greater
precision in grammar and vocabulary. See Valdés' stages:
prewriting, composing
and revision.
Strategic Competence- refers to "the effective use of coping strategies to sustain or enhance communication" (Savignon, 1997, p. 278). These strategies are used to compensate for what the language learner does not know. They are also used by speakers that are fatigued, distracted or distressed. One such strategy involves using phrases or expressions to "buy time" and collect one's thoughts. Circumlocution, using a phrase to denote a word that one has forgotten or does not know, is another coping strategy. The use of gestures and phrases like "please repeat" or "speak slower, please" are others. (p. 8)
Strategy- "is an individual instructional activity as it occurs in the classroom" p. 78.
Structured Input Guidelines- See LessonNotes.
Structured Practice- include activities that focus on grammatical form only. Example:
1.
My aunt is my mother's friend.
2. My dear friend, you are speaking too rapidly.
3. This gentleman is quite sad.
4. We are too old.
(p. 126) Most theorists and practioners advocate contextualized
practice.
Structured Process Method- See Environmental Mode.
Stylistics- "The study and art
of selection among linguistic forms" (Dictionary of Linguistics,
1969.
Pei and Gaynor, ed., p. 205). According to Savignon, stylistics
involves the analysis and description of the varieties of language used
with the purpose of determining principles and generalizations regarding
the choices that groups and individuals make as they express themselves
through language. She adds that it is used in literary studies to refer
to "an interpretation of an author's personality or way of organizing experiences"
(Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice 1997,
p. 278)
Suggestopedia- is a second language teaching methodology also refered to as Suggestive-Accelerative Learning and Teaching (SALT) and the Lozanov Method. It originated in Bulgaria and was developed by Georgi Lozanov, a psychotherapist and physician. The method stresses total relaxation in order for students to open their minds to learning. The method places great concern for such features of the learning environment as comfortable seating, soft lighting and background music. (p. 117-118)
Summative Evaluation- see long-term
evaluation.
Syllabus- is a written document
that specifies the content and order of material to be covered in a course.
(pp. 485-86)
T
Tabula Rasa- means "blank slate." Behaviorist theorists posit that the mind is a blank slate unto which stimulus-response associations are inscribed. Therefore, the environment is the primary influence on learning. See Behaviorism. (p. 46)
Task-Based Activities- are also referred to as "information-gap activities." These types of activities "require learners to exchange information and use it in some way" (Lee and Van Patten 1995, p. 249).
"Teacher-Talk"or "Teacherese"- is a concept that refers to a phenomena occurring in second language learning settings similar to the "caregiver speech" that occurs in natural settings where children learn language. "Teacher-talk" is a special type of language spoken to learners. It features slower delivery, careful articulation, familiar vocabulary, restatements, paraphrases and nonverbal aids like pictures or gestures. "Teacher talk" centers on a theme and includes communicative exchanges with students. It is a very good source of input for learners. (p. 175-76)
Teaching Unit- is a collection
of associated content that forms part of a syllabus.
Each unit has its own goals and objectives that are facilitated by a series
of interrelated lesson plans. In high
school programs, teaching units generally are based on the textbook chapters.
Sometimes, teachers develop special teaching units to meet program or course
goals not addressed by the textbook. For example, the national standards
for foreign language education encourage making connections across disciplines.
A teacher may choose to develop a unit on the rain forest in collaboration
with a science teacher. Other times, teachers will supplement and
expand information about a topic that the textbook merely introduces.
Common examples include cultural units. Teaching units end with some
type of summative or long-term evaluation--frequently a test, research
paper or a project.
Technique- "is an individual instructional activity as it occurs in the classroom" p. 78.
Test- is an instrument composed of a
series of questions, problems or activities that are designed to measure
intelligence, ability or achievement according to set criteria or standards.
See also achievement test and proficiency
test.
Text Type- refers to the length of speech or writing and the way it is organized. In regard to output, learners are capable of certain lengths of speech. For example, novice level learners produce mainly one to two word phrases. Intermediate level learners express themselves by employing sentence responses. Advanced level learners are able to sustain paragraph length discourse. (p. 17)
Textual Competence- See Discourse
Competence.
Top-Down Models- refers to a category
of reading instruction models that treat reading as "reader-driven."
The reader uses schemata to make
sense of what is read. (p. 195)
Total Physical Response- is a modern version of the Direct Method of second language teaching. It was developed by James J. Asher (1974). The method employs kinesthetic-sensory activities (students listen to commands and carry out them out) and stresses full development of listening comprehension before encouraging any active oral participation. The method also advocates exclusive use of the target language. (pp. 105-106)
Transcription-Oriented Activities- refers
to a type of writing activity. Transcription-oriented activities
are commonly found in textbooks. These activities usually focus on
grammatical or lexical structures. Lee and Van Patten provide this
example.
Transferable/Integrative Skills-
is the final stage of Phillips' (1984) model for reading instruction.
In this stage, students engage in activities that foster effective reading
strategies. Possible activities include: "contextual guessing,
selective reading for the main idea, appropriate dictionary usage and effective
rereading strategies to confirm hypotheses" (p. 201). See also preparation
stage, decoding/intensive stage, comprehension
stage.
Transfer- refers to the strategy
of taking native language structures or patterns and using them in the
second language. Linguists used to believe that learners used this
strategy when the patterns or structures of the target language and the
native language were different. Current research indicates that transfer
occurs more often when structures or patterns are similar. When students
are learning Spanish, for example, they initially use only ser for
"to be." Since this is similar to English, it takes English speakers
longer to reach the third phase in learning to use ser and estar.
See development stages.
U
Universal Grammar Theory- was posited
by Noam Chomsky. According to this theory,
a finite set of fixed rules govern all natural language production.
These grammar rules are produced by the language acquisition device (LAD),
a part of the human brain. These rules include substantive universals
and formal universals. Substantive universals refer to features that
all languages have: vowels, phonemes,
nouns, and verbs. Formal universals are structural rules like word
order, plural formation, pronominalization, possesion, and tense.
All languages follow these rules, yet each language has its own rule system.
(p. 49)
V
Variability- refers to the difference in performance among learners. (p. 56) The individual language-learner's language also differs according to the situation in which they are required to use the language (structured drill, free conversation, testing situation, paired activities) and the emotional or physical condition of the learner. (p. 230)
"Vernacular Style"- refers to
the structures that the learner has internalized and can use automatically
and appropriately. (p. 232)
W
Wash-Back Effect- relates classroom
instruction and testing. If in-class activities form the basis for
test sections, students will engage more readily in class activities and
pay attention more. Krashen believes
that teachers should give exams "that promote the use of acquisition activities"
(Krashen and Terrell 1983, p. 165).
Writing- refers to the process
of getting one's thoughts down in a text. It is "a continuum of activities
that range from the more mechanical or formal aspects of 'writing down'
on the one end to the more complex aspects of composing on the other" (Omaggio-Hadley,
p. 291). "Writing down" includes such activities as copying
learned material as one focuses on spelling, punctuation, and features
of grammar. "Writing in the language," another type of activity,
involves learners in controlled grammar practice to solidify the emerging
knowledge about the structures of the language. Additional types
of activities include composing, flexibility
measures and expressive writing.
|
|
|
|
|
|
URL: http://www.siue.edu/~kbueno/fl486/gloss.html
Published by: <Dr.
Kathleen Bueno>
Created by: Faculty
Technology Center <shuffst@siue.edu>
Last Update: July 28,
1999