Galileo (1564-1642)

1564: born at Pisa
1583: Discovers uniformity of pendulum vibrations
1592: professor of mathematics at Padua
1609: obtains correct theory for falling bodies : s=1/2gt².
July-August: constructs telescope
1610: Sidereus Nuncius
goes to Florence as chief mathematician and philosopher of the Grand Duke.
International fame.
1611: some, upset by his abrasive character, plan to have him attacked by the church for his Copernican views (Cigoli).
Galileo goes to Rome, and is feted by the Collegio Romano for his telescopic discoveries.
1612: book on floating bodies and controversies with Aristotelians.
1613: Letters on Sunspots, blatantly Copernican. Rotation of Sun on its axis about once a month.
Dec. 12: Castelli dines at court in Pisa and has exchange with Grand Duchess Christina; defends Copernicanism but Christina unconvinced. Writes to Galileo about it. Galileo composes a long letter to Castelli, which becomes the first draft of his Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina.
1614: Tommaso Caccini, a Dominican, preaching on book of Joshua, attacks Copernicus, Galileo, and Mathematics. Caccini is shown Galileo’s letter to Castelli, and with Lorini, sends it to the Inquisition in Florence and Rome. Caccini offers to testify.
1615: The Roman Inquisition looks at Letter to Castelli and to Galileo’s work.

February- March: Dini and Ciampoli in Rome try to avoid problems for Galileo.

· Cardinal Barberini tells Ciampoli that G. should not go beyond the arguments of Copernicus and not trespass the limitations of physics and mathematics. (In effect, this amounts to advising instrumentalism)

· Bellarmino S. J. tells Dini that Galileo should stick to instrumentalism, as Copernicus.

· Foscarini, a priest from Naples, writes a book claiming that Copernicanism is compatible with the Bible. The book is sent to Galileo by Cesi.

April: Bellarmino is given Foscarini’s book and Galileo’s letter to Castelli. He replies by saying that

• Galileo should speak hypothetically and not categorically
• The Council of Trent admits only interpretations consistent with those of the Church Fathers, all of whom hold that the Earth does not move and the Sun is not at the center of the universe.
• One cannot say that whether the Sun moves is not a matter of faith because even if it were not with regard to the subject matter, it would be with respect to Scripture: one who denied that Abraham had two sons would be as heretical as one who denied the Virgin Birth.
• Only if there were conclusive proof of Copernicanism could one accept it. It would follow that we don’t understand the relevant biblical passages!
• Experience conclusively teaches that the Earth does not move.

April 18: Galileo receives Bellarmino’s analysis and in an unsent manuscript answers it point by point.
Sometime in 1615 G. writes Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina …concerning the use of biblical quotations in matters of science
December: Galileo goes to Rome to defend himself and Copernicanism: he’s everywhere, defending Copernicus. He strengthens the arguments against him and then destroys them, making his many opponents look ridiculous.

He works on his theory of tides (explained on the basis of the composition of the earth’s diurnal and annual motions) as proof of the Copernican system.
1616: Pope Paul V asks for an official opinion on the heliocentrism; Bellarmino is consulted and claims that Copernicanism is probably incompatible with Scriptures.

February 24: The Holy Office finds the claims that

1) The Sun is at the center of the universe as “stulta et absurda in philosophia et formaliter heretica.”

2) The Sun has no local motion as “stulta et absurda et in Fide erronea.”

However, Galileo’s name is not made in public.

February 25: The Holy office instructs Bellarmino to tell Galileo of their decision involving:

1) a DECREE that Galileo give up the condemned opinion;

2) if he refused, a PRECEPT in the presence of a notary to abstain altogether from treating, teaching or defending he condemned opinion, making clear that the breach of such a precept would incriminate him.

3) If he refused to acquiesce, he should be imprisoned

February 26: A document not signed by Galileo says that he gave up the condemned opinion and acquiesced to the precept of not teaching it or defending it in any way, written or oral, otherwise the Holy Office would start proceeding against him.

Copernicus’ De Revolutionibus put on the Index of forbidden books, pending revisions. Foscarini’s book is ‘completely prohibited and condemned.’

Galileo goes back to Florence

May 26: Galileo gets an official document from Bellarmino saying that Galileo never abjured anything and was not given any penance. This clears his name of slanderous accusations.

1619 He antagonizes the Jesuits: being attacked, he begins a bitter controversy with Grassi S.J. on comets. He’s also quarrelling with Scheiner S.J. who argues that the sunspots are planets.

1620: Copernicus’ book is taken out of the Index by having minor alterations added.
1623: Maffeo Barberini, an admirer of Galileo, is Pope Urbanus VIII. Galileo goes to Rome and is received by the pope 6 times.
The Assayer, against Grassi, is published. Distinction between primary and secondary qualities.
1630: finishes The Dialogue after many delays dues to bad health.
Goes to Rome and manages to obtain imprimatur from his friend Riccardi (Master of the Apostolic Palace) and from Florentine censors.
1631: The Dialogue is published in Florence (1000 copies!)
1632: because of political intrigue connected with the confrontation between Spain and France during 30-year war, Galileo loses some protectors, among whom is Ciampoli, the pope’s secretary, who is dismissed.
August: Urban orders a commission to investigate the granting of the imprimatur to The Dialogue and stops the printing of the work

October: Galileo ordered to Rome to stand trial
1633, April-June: Galileo undergoes interrogation. (Although he’s probably not shown the instruments of torture, his correspondence shows he’s terrified he’s going to be tortured.)

The trial is NOT doctrinal but personal, revolving about 2 issues:
1. Whether Galileo broke the decree. (He says “yes” but, he claims, unintentionally). The works referred to in the accusation are the Letters on the Sunspots and the Dialogue.
2. Whether there had been a legally binding precept. (Galileo says twice, once under pain of torture, that he does not remember such a precept, although he does not deny its existence).
Since the imprimatur to The Dialogue does not render the investigation of the congruity of Galileo’s intent and the precept illegitimate, the outcome is inevitable. Here is the official document condemning Galileo.
June 22: Galileo made to recant and compelled to abjure. Eventually, he’s given home arrest for life in his villa outside Florence. All his books are banned.

Abjuration and sentence are sent to all important cities to be read to scientists. On July 12 they are read in Florence in the presence of Galileo’s followers.
The local inquisitor is admonished for having approved the Dialogue.

1635: The Dialogue in Latin in Strasbourg.

1636: Italian and Latin versions of Letter to Christina published in Strasbourg
1638: Elzevir in Leyden publishes the Two New Sciences, Galileo’s greatest book. Galileo feigns ignorance of how the manuscript got to Holland. The Church does not pursue the matter.
By now he’s blind, but the pope refuses to free him.
1642: dies at Arcetri.